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6 <title>A Few Coding Standards</title>
10 <div class="doc_title">
11 A Few Coding Standards
15 <li><a href="#introduction">Introduction</a></li>
16 <li><a href="#mechanicalissues">Mechanical Source Issues</a>
18 <li><a href="#sourceformating">Source Code Formatting</a>
20 <li><a href="#scf_commenting">Commenting</a></li>
21 <li><a href="#scf_commentformat">Comment Formatting</a></li>
22 <li><a href="#scf_includes"><tt>#include</tt> Style</a></li>
23 <li><a href="#scf_codewidth">Source Code Width</a></li>
24 <li><a href="#scf_spacestabs">Use Spaces Instead of Tabs</a></li>
25 <li><a href="#scf_indentation">Indent Code Consistently</a></li>
27 <li><a href="#compilerissues">Compiler Issues</a>
29 <li><a href="#ci_warningerrors">Treat Compiler Warnings Like
31 <li><a href="#ci_portable_code">Write Portable Code</a></li>
32 <li><a href="#ci_class_struct">Use of class/struct Keywords</a></li>
35 <li><a href="#styleissues">Style Issues</a>
37 <li><a href="#macro">The High Level Issues</a>
39 <li><a href="#hl_module">A Public Header File <b>is</b> a
41 <li><a href="#hl_dontinclude">#include as Little as Possible</a></li>
42 <li><a href="#hl_privateheaders">Keep "internal" Headers
44 <li><a href="#ll_iostream"><tt>#include <iostream></tt> is
45 <em>forbidden</em></a></li>
47 <li><a href="#micro">The Low Level Issues</a>
49 <li><a href="#ll_assert">Assert Liberally</a></li>
50 <li><a href="#ll_ns_std">Do not use 'using namespace std'</a></li>
51 <li><a href="#ll_virtual_anch">Provide a virtual method anchor for
52 classes in headers</a></li>
53 <li><a href="#ll_preincrement">Prefer Preincrement</a></li>
54 <li><a href="#ll_avoidendl">Avoid <tt>std::endl</tt></a></li>
57 <li><a href="#seealso">See Also</a></li>
60 <div class="doc_author">
61 <p>Written by <a href="mailto:sabre@nondot.org">Chris Lattner</a> and
62 <a href="mailto:void@nondot.org">Bill Wendling</a></p>
66 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
67 <div class="doc_section">
68 <a name="introduction">Introduction</a>
70 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
72 <div class="doc_text">
74 <p>This document attempts to describe a few coding standards that are being used
75 in the LLVM source tree. Although no coding standards should be regarded as
76 absolute requirements to be followed in all instances, coding standards can be
79 <p>This document intentionally does not prescribe fixed standards for religious
80 issues such as brace placement and space usage. For issues like this, follow
85 <p><b><a name="goldenrule">If you are adding a significant body of source to a
86 project, feel free to use whatever style you are most comfortable with. If you
87 are extending, enhancing, or bug fixing already implemented code, use the style
88 that is already being used so that the source is uniform and easy to
93 <p>The ultimate goal of these guidelines is the increase readability and
94 maintainability of our common source base. If you have suggestions for topics to
95 be included, please mail them to <a
96 href="mailto:sabre@nondot.org">Chris</a>.</p>
100 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
101 <div class="doc_section">
102 <a name="mechanicalissues">Mechanical Source Issues</a>
104 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
106 <!-- ======================================================================= -->
107 <div class="doc_subsection">
108 <a name="sourceformating">Source Code Formatting</a>
111 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
112 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
113 <a name="scf_commenting">Commenting</a>
116 <div class="doc_text">
118 <p>Comments are one critical part of readability and maintainability. Everyone
119 knows they should comment, so should you. Although we all should probably
120 comment our code more than we do, there are a few very critical places that
121 documentation is very useful:</p>
125 <p>Every source file should have a header on it that
126 describes the basic purpose of the file. If a file does not have a header, it
127 should not be checked into CVS. Most source trees will probably have a standard
128 file header format. The standard format for the LLVM source tree looks like
131 <div class="doc_code">
133 //===-- llvm/Instruction.h - Instruction class definition -------*- C++ -*-===//
135 // The LLVM Compiler Infrastructure
137 // This file was developed by the LLVM research group and is distributed under
138 // the University of Illinois Open Source License. See LICENSE.TXT for details.
140 //===----------------------------------------------------------------------===//
142 // This file contains the declaration of the Instruction class, which is the
143 // base class for all of the VM instructions.
145 //===----------------------------------------------------------------------===//
149 <p>A few things to note about this particular format: The "<tt>-*- C++
150 -*-</tt>" string on the first line is there to tell Emacs that the source file
151 is a C++ file, not a C file (Emacs assumes .h files are C files by default).
152 Note that this tag is not necessary in .cpp files. The name of the file is also
153 on the first line, along with a very short description of the purpose of the
154 file. This is important when printing out code and flipping though lots of
157 <p>The next section in the file is a concise note that defines the license that
158 the file is released under. This makes it perfectly clear what terms the source
159 code can be distributed under.</p>
161 <p>The main body of the description does not have to be very long in most cases.
162 Here it's only two lines. If an algorithm is being implemented or something
163 tricky is going on, a reference to the paper where it is published should be
164 included, as well as any notes or "gotchas" in the code to watch out for.</p>
166 <b>Class overviews</b>
168 <p>Classes are one fundamental part of a good object oriented design. As such,
169 a class definition should have a comment block that explains what the class is
170 used for... if it's not obvious. If it's so completely obvious your grandma
171 could figure it out, it's probably safe to leave it out. Naming classes
172 something sane goes a long ways towards avoiding writing documentation.</p>
175 <b>Method information</b>
177 <p>Methods defined in a class (as well as any global functions) should also be
178 documented properly. A quick note about what it does any a description of the
179 borderline behaviour is all that is necessary here (unless something
180 particularly tricky or insideous is going on). The hope is that people can
181 figure out how to use your interfaces without reading the code itself... that is
184 <p>Good things to talk about here are what happens when something unexpected
185 happens: does the method return null? Abort? Format your hard disk?</p>
189 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
190 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
191 <a name="scf_commentformat">Comment Formatting</a>
194 <div class="doc_text">
196 <p>In general, prefer C++ style (<tt>//</tt>) comments. They take less space,
197 require less typing, don't have nesting problems, etc. There are a few cases
198 when it is useful to use C style (<tt>/* */</tt>) comments however:</p>
201 <li>When writing a C code: Obviously if you are writing C code, use C style
203 <li>When writing a header file that may be <tt>#include</tt>d by a C source
205 <li>When writing a source file that is used by a tool that only accepts C
209 <p>To comment out a large block of code, use <tt>#if 0</tt> and <tt>#endif</tt>.
210 These nest properly and are better behaved in general than C style comments.</p>
214 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
215 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
216 <a name="scf_includes"><tt>#include</tt> Style</a>
219 <div class="doc_text">
221 <p>Immediately after the <a href="#scf_commenting">header file comment</a> (and
222 include guards if working on a header file), the <a
223 href="#hl_dontinclude">minimal</a> list of <tt>#include</tt>s required by the
224 file should be listed. We prefer these <tt>#include</tt>s to be listed in this
228 <li><a href="#mmheader">Main Module header</a></li>
229 <li><a href="#hl_privateheaders">Local/Private Headers</a></li>
230 <li><tt>llvm/*</tt></li>
231 <li><tt>llvm/Analysis/*</tt></li>
232 <li><tt>llvm/Assembly/*</tt></li>
233 <li><tt>llvm/Bytecode/*</tt></li>
234 <li><tt>llvm/CodeGen/*</tt></li>
236 <li><tt>Support/*</tt></li>
237 <li><tt>Config/*</tt></li>
238 <li>System <tt>#includes</tt></li>
241 <p>... and each catagory should be sorted by name.</p>
243 <p><a name="mmheader">The "Main Module Header"</a> file applies to .cpp file
244 which implement an interface defined by a .h file. This <tt>#include</tt>
245 should always be included <b>first</b> regardless of where it lives on the file
246 system. By including a header file first in the .cpp files that implement the
247 interfaces, we ensure that the header does not have any hidden dependencies
248 which are not explicitly #included in the header, but should be. It is also a
249 form of documentation in the .cpp file to indicate where the interfaces it
250 implements are defined.</p>
254 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
255 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
256 <a name="scf_codewidth">Source Code Width</a>
259 <div class="doc_text">
261 <p>Write your code to fit within 80 columns of text. This helps those of us who
262 like to print out code and look at your code in an xterm without resizing
267 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
268 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
269 <a name="scf_spacestabs">Use Spaces Instead of Tabs</a>
272 <div class="doc_text">
274 <p>In all cases, prefer spaces to tabs in source files. People have different
275 prefered indentation levels, and different styles of indentation that they
276 like... this is fine. What isn't is that different editors/viewers expand tabs
277 out to different tab stops. This can cause your code to look completely
278 unreadable, and it is not worth dealing with.</p>
280 <p>As always, follow the <a href="#goldenrule">Golden Rule</a> above: follow the
281 style of existing code if your are modifying and extending it. If you like four
282 spaces of indentation, <b>DO NOT</b> do that in the middle of a chunk of code
283 with two spaces of indentation. Also, do not reindent a whole source file: it
284 makes for incredible diffs that are absolutely worthless.</p>
288 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
289 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
290 <a name="scf_indentation">Indent Code Consistently</a>
293 <div class="doc_text">
295 <p>Okay, your first year of programming you were told that indentation is
296 important. If you didn't believe and internalize this then, now is the time.
302 <!-- ======================================================================= -->
303 <div class="doc_subsection">
304 <a name="compilerissues">Compiler Issues</a>
308 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
309 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
310 <a name="ci_warningerrors">Treat Compiler Warnings Like Errors</a>
313 <div class="doc_text">
315 <p>If your code has compiler warnings in it, something is wrong: you aren't
316 casting values correctly, your have "questionable" constructs in your code, or
317 you are doing something legitimately wrong. Compiler warnings can cover up
318 legitimate errors in output and make dealing with a translation unit
321 <p>It is not possible to prevent all warnings from all compilers, nor is it
322 desirable. Instead, pick a standard compiler (like <tt>gcc</tt>) that provides
323 a good thorough set of warnings, and stick to them. At least in the case of
324 <tt>gcc</tt>, it is possible to work around any spurious errors by changing the
325 syntax of the code slightly. For example, an warning that annoys me occurs when
326 I write code like this:</p>
328 <div class="doc_code">
330 if (V = getValue()) {
336 <p><tt>gcc</tt> will warn me that I probably want to use the <tt>==</tt>
337 operator, and that I probably mistyped it. In most cases, I haven't, and I
338 really don't want the spurious errors. To fix this particular problem, I
339 rewrite the code like this:</p>
341 <div class="doc_code">
343 if ((V = getValue())) {
349 <p>...which shuts <tt>gcc</tt> up. Any <tt>gcc</tt> warning that annoys you can
350 be fixed by massaging the code appropriately.</p>
352 <p>These are the <tt>gcc</tt> warnings that I prefer to enable: <tt>-Wall
353 -Winline -W -Wwrite-strings -Wno-unused</tt></p>
357 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
358 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
359 <a name="ci_portable_code">Write Portable Code</a>
362 <div class="doc_text">
364 <p>In almost all cases, it is possible and within reason to write completely
365 portable code. If there are cases where it isn't possible to write portable
366 code, isolate it behind a well defined (and well documented) interface.</p>
368 <p>In practice, this means that you shouldn't assume much about the host
369 compiler, including its support for "high tech" features like partial
370 specialization of templates. In fact, Visual C++ 6 could be an important target
371 for our work in the future, and we don't want to have to rewrite all of our code
376 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
377 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
378 <a name="ci_class_struct">Use of <tt>class</tt> and <tt>struct</tt> Keywords</a>
380 <div class="doc_text">
382 <p>In C++, the <tt>class</tt> and <tt>struct</tt> keywords can be used almost
383 interchangeably. The only difference is when they are used to declare a class:
384 <tt>class</tt> makes all members private by default while <tt>struct</tt> makes
385 all members public by default.</p>
387 <p>Unfortunately, not all compilers follow the rules and some will generate
388 different symbols based on whether <tt>class</tt> or <tt>struct</tt> was used to
389 declare the symbol. This can lead to problems at link time.</p>
391 <p>So, the rule for LLVM is to always use the <tt>class</tt> keyword, unless
392 <b>all</b> members are public, in which case <tt>struct</tt> is allowed.</p>
396 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
397 <div class="doc_section">
398 <a name="styleissues">Style Issues</a>
400 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
403 <!-- ======================================================================= -->
404 <div class="doc_subsection">
405 <a name="macro">The High Level Issues</a>
409 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
410 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
411 <a name="hl_module">A Public Header File <b>is</b> a Module</a>
414 <div class="doc_text">
416 <p>C++ doesn't do too well in the modularity department. There is no real
417 encapsulation or data hiding (unless you use expensive protocol classes), but it
418 is what we have to work with. When you write a public header file (in the LLVM
419 source tree, they live in the top level "include" directory), you are defining a
420 module of functionality.</p>
422 <p>Ideally, modules should be completely independent of each other, and their
423 header files should only include the absolute minimum number of headers
424 possible. A module is not just a class, a function, or a namespace: <a
425 href="http://www.cuj.com/articles/2000/0002/0002c/0002c.htm">it's a collection
426 of these</a> that defines an interface. This interface may be several
427 functions, classes or data structures, but the important issue is how they work
430 <p>In general, a module should be implemented with one or more <tt>.cpp</tt>
431 files. Each of these <tt>.cpp</tt> files should include the header that defines
432 their interface first. This ensure that all of the dependences of the module
433 header have been properly added to the module header itself, and are not
434 implicit. System headers should be included after user headers for a
435 translation unit.</p>
439 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
440 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
441 <a name="hl_dontinclude"><tt>#include</tt> as Little as Possible</a>
444 <div class="doc_text">
446 <p><tt>#include</tt> hurts compile time performance. Don't do it unless you
447 have to, especially in header files.</p>
449 <p>But wait, sometimes you need to have the definition of a class to use it, or
450 to inherit from it. In these cases go ahead and <tt>#include</tt> that header
451 file. Be aware however that there are many cases where you don't need to have
452 the full definition of a class. If you are using a pointer or reference to a
453 class, you don't need the header file. If you are simply returning a class
454 instance from a prototyped function or method, you don't need it. In fact, for
455 most cases, you simply don't need the definition of a class... and not
456 <tt>#include</tt>'ing speeds up compilation.</p>
458 <p>It is easy to try to go too overboard on this recommendation, however. You
459 <b>must</b> include all of the header files that you are using -- you can
460 include them either directly
461 or indirectly (through another header file). To make sure that you don't
462 accidently forget to include a header file in your module header, make sure to
463 include your module header <b>first</b> in the implementation file (as mentioned
464 above). This way there won't be any hidden dependencies that you'll find out
469 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
470 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
471 <a name="hl_privateheaders">Keep "internal" Headers Private</a>
474 <div class="doc_text">
476 <p>Many modules have a complex implementation that causes them to use more than
477 one implementation (<tt>.cpp</tt>) file. It is often tempting to put the
478 internal communication interface (helper classes, extra functions, etc) in the
479 public module header file. Don't do this.</p>
481 <p>If you really need to do something like this, put a private header file in
482 the same directory as the source files, and include it locally. This ensures
483 that your private interface remains private and undisturbed by outsiders.</p>
485 <p>Note however, that it's okay to put extra implementation methods a public
486 class itself... just make them private (or protected), and all is well.</p>
490 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
491 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
492 <a name="ll_iostream"><tt>#include <iostream></tt> is forbidden</a>
495 <div class="doc_text">
497 <p>The use of <tt>#include <iostream></tt> in library files is
498 hereby <b><em>forbidden</em></b>. The primary reason for doing this is to
499 support clients using LLVM libraries as part of larger systems. In particular,
500 we statically link LLVM into some dynamic libraries. Even if LLVM isn't used,
501 the static c'tors are run whenever an application start up that uses the dynamic
502 library. There are two problems with this:</p>
505 <li>The time to run the static c'tors impacts startup time of
506 applications—a critical time for gui apps.</li>
507 <li>The static c'tors cause the app to pull many extra pages of memory off the
508 disk: both the code for the static c'tors in each .o file and the small
509 amount of data that gets touched. In addition, touched/dirty pages put
510 more pressure on the VM system on low-memory machines.</li>
513 <table align="center">
520 <td align="left"><pre>#include <iostream></pre></td>
521 <td align="left"><pre>#include "llvm/Support/Streams.h"</pre></td>
524 <td align="left"><pre>DEBUG(std::cerr << ...);
525 DEBUG(dump(std::cerr));</pre></td>
526 <td align="left"><pre>DOUT << ...;
527 dump(DOUT);</pre></td>
530 <td align="left"><pre>std::cerr << "Hello world\n";</pre></td>
531 <td align="left"><pre>llvm::cerr << "Hello world\n";</pre></td>
534 <td align="left"><pre>std::cout << "Hello world\n";</pre></td>
535 <td align="left"><pre>llvm::cout << "Hello world\n";</pre></td>
538 <td align="left"><pre>std::cin >> Var;</pre></td>
539 <td align="left"><pre>llvm::cin >> Var;</pre></td>
542 <td align="left"><pre>std::ostream</pre></td>
543 <td align="left"><pre>llvm::OStream</pre></td>
546 <td align="left"><pre>std::istream</pre></td>
547 <td align="left"><pre>llvm::IStream</pre></td>
550 <td align="left"><pre>std::stringstream</pre></td>
551 <td align="left"><pre>llvm::StringStream</pre></td>
554 <td align="left"><pre>void print(std::ostream &Out);
556 print(std::cerr);</pre></td>
557 <td align="left"><pre>void print(std::ostream &Out);
558 void print(std::ostream *Out) { if (Out) print(*Out) }
560 print(llvm::cerr);</pre>
562 <ul><i>N.B.</i> The second <tt>print</tt> method is called by the <tt>print</tt>
563 expression. It prevents the execution of the first <tt>print</tt> method if the
564 stream is <tt>cnull</tt>.</ul></td>
571 <!-- ======================================================================= -->
572 <div class="doc_subsection">
573 <a name="micro">The Low Level Issues</a>
577 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
578 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
579 <a name="ll_assert">Assert Liberally</a>
582 <div class="doc_text">
584 <p>Use the "<tt>assert</tt>" function to its fullest. Check all of your
585 preconditions and assumptions, you never know when a bug (not neccesarily even
586 yours) might be caught early by an assertion, which reduces debugging time
587 dramatically. The "<tt><cassert></tt>" header file is probably already
588 included by the header files you are using, so it doesn't cost anything to use
591 <p>To further assist with debugging, make sure to put some kind of error message
592 in the assertion statement (which is printed if the assertion is tripped). This
593 helps the poor debugging make sense of why an assertion is being made and
594 enforced, and hopefully what to do about it. Here is one complete example:</p>
596 <div class="doc_code">
598 inline Value *getOperand(unsigned i) {
599 assert(i < Operands.size() && "getOperand() out of range!");
605 <p>Here are some examples:</p>
607 <div class="doc_code">
609 assert(Ty->isPointerType() && "Can't allocate a non pointer type!");
611 assert((Opcode == Shl || Opcode == Shr) && "ShiftInst Opcode invalid!");
613 assert(idx < getNumSuccessors() && "Successor # out of range!");
615 assert(V1.getType() == V2.getType() && "Constant types must be identical!");
617 assert(isa<PHINode>(Succ->front()) && "Only works on PHId BBs!");
621 <p>You get the idea...</p>
625 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
626 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
627 <a name="ll_ns_std">Do not use '<tt>using namespace std</tt>'</a>
630 <div class="doc_text">
631 <p>In LLVM, we prefer to explicitly prefix all identifiers from the standard
632 namespace with an "<tt>std::</tt>" prefix, rather than rely on
633 "<tt>using namespace std;</tt>".</p>
635 <p> In header files, adding a '<tt>using namespace XXX</tt>' directive pollutes
636 the namespace of any source file that includes the header. This is clearly a
639 <p>In implementation files (e.g. .cpp files), the rule is more of a stylistic
640 rule, but is still important. Basically, using explicit namespace prefixes
641 makes the code <b>clearer</b>, because it is immediately obvious what facilities
642 are being used and where they are coming from, and <b>more portable</b>, because
643 namespace clashes cannot occur between LLVM code and other namespaces. The
644 portability rule is important because different standard library implementations
645 expose different symbols (potentially ones they shouldn't), and future revisions
646 to the C++ standard will add more symbols to the <tt>std</tt> namespace. As
647 such, we never use '<tt>using namespace std;</tt>' in LLVM.</p>
649 <p>The exception to the general rule (i.e. it's not an exception for
650 the <tt>std</tt> namespace) is for implementation files. For example, all of
651 the code in the LLVM project implements code that lives in the 'llvm' namespace.
652 As such, it is ok, and actually clearer, for the .cpp files to have a '<tt>using
653 namespace llvm</tt>' directive at their top, after the <tt>#include</tt>s. The
654 general form of this rule is that any .cpp file that implements code in any
655 namespace may use that namespace (and its parents'), but should not use any
660 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
661 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
662 <a name="ll_virtual_anch">Provide a virtual method anchor for classes
666 <div class="doc_text">
668 <p>If a class is defined in a header file and has a v-table (either it has
669 virtual methods or it derives from classes with virtual methods), it must
670 always have at least one out-of-line virtual method in the class. Without
671 this, the compiler will copy the vtable and RTTI into every .o file that
672 #includes the header, bloating .o file sizes and increasing link times.
678 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
679 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
680 <a name="ll_preincrement">Prefer Preincrement</a>
683 <div class="doc_text">
685 <p>Hard fast rule: Preincrement (<tt>++X</tt>) may be no slower than
686 postincrement (<tt>X++</tt>) and could very well be a lot faster than it. Use
687 preincrementation whenever possible.</p>
689 <p>The semantics of postincrement include making a copy of the value being
690 incremented, returning it, and then preincrementing the "work value". For
691 primitive types, this isn't a big deal... but for iterators, it can be a huge
692 issue (for example, some iterators contains stack and set objects in them...
693 copying an iterator could invoke the copy ctor's of these as well). In general,
694 get in the habit of always using preincrement, and you won't have a problem.</p>
698 <!-- _______________________________________________________________________ -->
699 <div class="doc_subsubsection">
700 <a name="ll_avoidendl">Avoid <tt>std::endl</tt></a>
703 <div class="doc_text">
705 <p>The <tt>std::endl</tt> modifier, when used with iostreams outputs a newline
706 to the output stream specified. In addition to doing this, however, it also
707 flushes the output stream. In other words, these are equivalent:</p>
709 <div class="doc_code">
711 std::cout << std::endl;
712 std::cout << '\n' << std::flush;
716 <p>Most of the time, you probably have no reason to flush the output stream, so
717 it's better to use a literal <tt>'\n'</tt>.</p>
722 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
723 <div class="doc_section">
724 <a name="seealso">See Also</a>
726 <!-- *********************************************************************** -->
728 <div class="doc_text">
730 <p>A lot of these comments and recommendations have been culled for other
731 sources. Two particularly important books for our work are:</p>
735 <li><a href="http://www.aw-bc.com/catalog/academic/product/0,1144,0201310155,00.html">Effective
736 C++</a> by Scott Meyers. There is an online version of the book (only some
738 href="http://www.awlonline.com/cseng/meyerscddemo/">available as well</a>. Also
739 interesting and useful are "More Effective C++" and "Effective STL" by the same
742 <li><a href="http://cseng.aw.com/book/0,3828,0201633620,00.html">Large-Scale C++
743 Software Design</a> by John Lakos</li>
747 <p>If you get some free time, and you haven't read them: do so, you might learn
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